Artifact Six

Considering democratic learning: a comparative review of literature

A key ingredient of critical thinking is questioning the assumptions underlying our personal ways of thinking and acting, which then prepares us to think and act differently. The ability to move beyond what is obvious, to look at things in a broader context and make rational assumptions is part of critical thinking. This approach necessarily involves challenging the learners and teaching them new perspectives for interpretation (Myers, 1988). How adult learners, including teacher-educators, see things is crucial, as is the lens through which they view the world.  They must analyze the subject, the situation, the people involved, and—most importantly—themselves, and this at times can be difficult.

In this paper I am interesting in exploring the topic of democracy and education, drawing upon some key critical thinkers. As someone who regards education as a serious activity, I believe that in order to untangle the pedagogic problems and puzzles effectively we have to start with critical thinking. Indeed, the emphasis that critical theories place on critiquing our own assumptions is the feature I find most appealing.

To develop my analysis, I begin with an exploration of how critical theory can help educators to challenge hegemonic beliefs, looking particularly at the work of Stephen Brookfield. I then consider how the French philosopher, Michel Foucault, provides us with insights into the ways in which power impacts upon our learning contexts. Then I draw upon Henry Giroux’s analysis of the detrimental influence of neoliberalism on teaching and learning in higher education contexts. I finish with an acknowledgement of the important points that Cornel West, an African-American philosopher, and Marie Battiste, a Canadian First Nations scholar, make about the need to explore our own power and positionality as researchers and scholars. 

Stephen Brookfield

Brookfield’s (2005) research activities in the field of adult learning (particularly self-directed learning), community education, and comparative adult education are essential aspects of my analysis. He emphasized the importance of fostering critical thinking, a skill that is vital in allowing us to comprehend the world and to act within and upon the world in ways that permit in-depth discourse. This subtle yet significant approach to critical pedagogy offers an agenda for change and an opportunity to challenge the established order. These discourses should not be isolated conversations nor business-orientated sessions; instead, they should address social reality—equity and equality— with a focus on common interests and “prevent the emergence of inherited privilege” (Brookfield, 2005, p. 331).

Researchers who focus on critical theory know that a central concept that needs to be scrutinized is ideology. Brookfield argues that (self) critical posture goes hand-in-hand with challenging ideology, contesting hegemony, unmasking power relations, overcoming the difficulties of alienation, and practicing democracy. The phenomenon of hegemony, for instance, emphasizes that people—adult learners—are active participants in an ideology and willing partners in their own oppression. Brookfield (2005) explains that hegemony is the “process by which we learn to embrace enthusiastically a system of beliefs and practices that end up both harming us and supporting the interests of others who have power over us” (p. 93). He contends that we have to contest this aspect of hegemony that places control over the people in the hands of the powerful and influential, otherwise people will “learn to accept as natural and in their own interest an unjust social order” (p. 43). The “dark irony, the cruelty of hegemony” (p. 44) that Brookfield points out is that people are enslaved by the very beliefs and assumptions they so proudly learn and act upon. By not understanding ideology, hegemony, power, alienation, democracy, liberation, and reason, individuals cannot grasp how these phenomena function, and people become their own jailers, creating their own oppression.

Michel Foucault

Michel Foucault (1980), the French philosopher, social theorist, philologist and literary critic, argues that power is exercised in all social institutions and that it is inextricably intertwined with the ability to define what counts as knowledge. His theories address the relationship between power and knowledge, and how these entities are used as a form of social control through societal institutions; questions of central importance for educators interested in democracy.

Foucault talks about the circularity of power when he asserts that it is not just one-way, but rather moves in all kinds of different directions. He argues that in contemporary society power works in many ways, and that it should be understood as a circulation or flow around society rather than something statically imposed from above. He sees the adult as conspiring in his or her servitude, thereby not needing the state to reinforce it. He insists that “power is ‘always already there’, that one is never ‘outside’ it, that there are no ‘margins’ for those who break with the system to gambol in” (p. 141). Part of what we do as adult educators is to recognize how power plays roles in our lives and the ways it is used and abused. A critical theoretical understanding of adult learning should help us recognize the circulation of power in our lives and communities, and help us redirect our efforts to serve the interests of many rather than the few. That is why it is important that we, as critical theorists and adult educators, resist the idea of choice being presented as only one option. There is always another way to produce alternative discourse, or—as Brookfield (2005) calls it—“diversity initiatives” to counter the structuralized and uniform world-view. 

Henry Giroux

Henry Giroux’s (2014) book on neoliberalism in higher education is both terrifying and significant as it discusses what it means to live and work in a neoliberal environment. Giroux (2014) alludes to teachers “who are struggling to educate young people for a more just and democratic world” (Foreword). In his more in-depth analysis, Giroux goes one step further and makes it clear that we have to

stand up and stop the arrogant and formidable assault on all aspects of democratic life now being waged by the financial elite, corporations, conservatives, reactionary think tanks, authoritarian politicians, and a right-wing media that ignores every principle of honor, decency, and truth. (p. 194)

One of Giroux`s (2014) main premises is that there is a link between education and democracy, but this link has been damaged, some argue severed, by the neoliberal agenda. In a free society, if we wish to preserve our democracy`s public spaces, we have to make sure that this not-to-be-taken-for-granted relationship is not ruptured, but guarded and maintained. Henry Giroux`s critical pedagogy addresses the correlation between democracy and education, and argues that we dislocate their interrelationship at our peril. Giroux (2014) has ardently documented the road to this point, but he also points out that there is no shortage of discussion among philosophers, theorists, and educators about the relationship between education and democracy.

Giroux (2014) acknowledges that the relationship between education and democracy are not without tensions, but he also argues that what students ought to learn and what teachers ought to teach do have an impact on the social fabric of society. Through this intimate interaction, critical inquiry, dialogue and civic engagement can take place, and in this context, as Giroux (2014) explains, citizens are provided with skills for critical understanding and also enabled to actually intervene in society.

Giroux (2014) rather worryingly explains that democracy is quite unsettled by the neoliberal agenda. He points to the fact that for decades the neoliberal regime undermined democracy by encouraging personal responsibility in place of larger social efforts, and promoted self-interest. He frames the neoliberal economy as being Darwinian in nature, where privatization, commodification, free trade and deregulation are promoted, and the upper one-percent is privileged. He point-blank states that public and higher education is under attack by a number of powerful organizations that monopolize our society. If we are to reconcile these tensions and hope to achieve a rich and constructive relationship between democracy and education, we must begin with a conception of democracy consistent with educational and social aims (Giroux, 2014).

Cornel West

West`s (1999) pragmatic view—to call into question any form of dogmatism—is consistent with Dewey`s belief that democratic discourse requires the constant critical analysis of assumptions. West writes of pragmatism in an African-American context, drawing attention to the importance of race in shaping human experience.

Although West`s work is performed outside the adult educational community, his emphasis on the importance of critical analysis is framed in terms that are very familiar to adult-education scholars preoccupied with critical reflection and transformative learning (Brookfield, 2005). West`s perspective is that a democratic society is one comprised of “unique selves acting in and through participatory communities [in] an open, risk-ridden future” (West, 1993, p. 43).  As adult educators we constantly strive to raise our critical approach to a more conscious level, and as a result we become more equipped in our undertaking. Yet the question remains: How can one constantly be conscious and critical? West`s (1993) challenges us to constantly reflect on difficult questions, noting that “every claim is open to revision” (p. 43).

Marie Battiste

Performing research from my white, middle-class, privileged, Eurocentric perspective is what Denzin & Lincoln (2005) call a metaphor for “colonial knowledge, for power and for truth” (p. 1). The authors further point out that the term research in indigenous knowledge is inextricably linked to imperialism and colonialism, therefore it “stirs up anger, silence, [and] distrust” (p. 1).

Sadly, the dominant narrative of colonial knowledge in research persists. Therefore, it is crucial that as researchers we understand our position in relation to colonization, and acknowledge and be prepared to unpack the privileges whiteness, racism and Eurocentrism have given us. First Nations Canadian scholar, Marie Battiste (2013) helps us do that. By engaging with her narrative, the researcher renounces the “one and only” approach to process, and learns to appreciate colonial history and its relationships to the deficit theories that hold privilege and Eurocentrism in place. We have to understand that the discourse is tied to colonialism and recognize that all cultures have theories and methodologies that define their ontology, epistemologies and axiologies.

Indigenous peoples, racial minorities, and people with diverse abilities, gendered expressions and sexual orientations are all seeking to address and redress a restoration of themselves from the colonial mindsets that have held them down or held Eurocentrism in its place. This decolonization is the one process for achieving self-determination and sovereignty over ourselves, our communities and our lands.

In Denzin & Lincoln`s (2005) view, researching “the Other”—in a colonial context—is representing the dark-skinned Other to the white world. Now, in my dissertation, by doing empirical research with teachers, I may or may not encounter the Other, but I do live in a region with a substantial indigenous population with a long history. As a scholar, therefore, it is my responsibility to connect my educational inquiry to indigenous knowledge as a diverse learning process that comes from living intimately with the land and working with the resources surrounding that land base.

I emphasized earlier that I regard education as a serious undertaking; Battiste (2013) does as well. She describes education as a process by which a society expresses its reality and values, processes its culture and transmits it to each generation. The modern curriculum is the tool by which the state approves and standardizes what counts as knowledge, and the elite in power choose what content and methods will be sanctioned; thus, schools can be used for hegemonic purposes. This conforms to my understanding of school as a societal institution. Battiste accentuates the importance of dialogue between educators and policy makers in order to avoid establishing a mainstream curriculum that ignores other ways of learning. I do not think we have done this well in the past. She also challenges us with powerful questions: “Who are the people who make these decisions, how will their choices be made, and what governs those choices? What counts as knowledge?” (Battiste, 2013, p. 104). In addition to this, I would also ask, “What is the role of a critical education with regard to the hierarchy of power embedded in society?”

Certainly, Battiste`s particular concern is education among Aboriginal people, but her questions are relevant to educators all over the world. I wholeheartedly agree with her assertion that current educational policies must undergo substantive reform. Central to this process is the rejection of the racism inherent to colonial systems of education, and the repositioning of indigenous humanities, sciences, and languages as vital fields of knowledge. Battiste suggests the urgency for this reform lies in the social, technological, and economic challenges facing society today, and the need for a revitalized knowledge system that incorporates both Indigenous and Eurocentric thinking.

Implications for my own research

In trying to make my analysis as thorough as possible, I cannot afford to ignore the insistence of Brookfield (2005) and Giroux (2014) that theory alone cannot inspire action, especially if it is expressed in terms that only a few selected, highly trained scholars can comprehend. West (1999) goes one step further when he asserts that critical theory should be indispensable in any educational activity. As Battiste (2013) argues, the point is to have theory that is inclusive, to generate knowledge that will change—not just interpret—the world. In this way, critical theory qualifies as being transformative. The validity of this argument captures not only hopes and dreams—the concern of Dr. Battiste—but also restores the balance in relationships and undoes the hegemonic authority over our lives.

Developing critical thinking in learners requires that teachers learn also, not only to support the learners, but to become critical teachers.. Facilitating such understanding is the cardinal goal of education, and is fundamental for construing meaning from experience as a guide to action. These would ideally include making critical judgements, self-reflection, identifying/understanding/evaluating/adopting values, bridging the gap between theory and practice, initiating and managing (social) change, and questioning orthodoxy (Dawes et al., 2005).

Within this view, individuals could take the advocacy stance Henry Giroux, Marie Battiste, and Cornel West converse about. Brookfield (1987) extends this line of reasoning by noting that critical thinking is “a productive and positive activity, a process and not an outcome is triggered by positive as well as negative events, emotive as well as rational, show[ing] manifestations that vary according to the contexts in which it occurs (p. 5).

During my time as a Waldorf teacher, I learned that any educational initiative must be centered around the students. In everything we do as educators, the process begins with the learner and concludes with the learner. We need to continually examine the meaning of this, and learn new ways to sustain and preserve it. It really is the essence of what makes schools and learning communities such uniquely valuable places in society, places that can be turned to for the constant testing and expansion of human experience. The promise of my study is not at all utopian; it is to present theories and facts, and actively encourage reasoning and discourse. It runs the risk of violating the “values” of the neoliberal consensus (e.g., social and moral action determined by what works for the market, students reduced to data points, adult learners being manipulated or coerced, etc.), because it advocates for social scientists—teachers, educators, researchers, professors—to be what Mills (1959) calls “persuaders within a society [where] the value of reason is held in high esteem” (p. 194). Of even greater importance is considering Goethe`s call to arms: “Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do” (Ferrie, 2014, p. 1671). In reflecting upon and discussing what we ought to accomplish, let us not allow our society to become a remarkably worse one for our children.

References

Battiste, M. (2013). Decolonizing education. Nourishing the learning spirit. Saskatoon, Canada:

Purich Publishing Limited.

Brookfield, S. (1987). Developing critical thinkers: Challenging adults to explore alternative

ways of thinking and acting. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Brookfield, S. (2005). The power of critical theory: Liberating adult learning and teaching.

San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Denzin, N., & Lincoln, Y.S. (2005). The discipline and practice of qualitative research. In

N. Denzin & Y.S. Lincoln (Eds.), The SAGE handbook of qualitative research

(3rd edition) (pp. 1-32). Thousand Oaks, CA; Sage Publications.

Dewey, J. (1966). Democracy and education. An introduction to philosophy of education.

New York: Free Press.

Ferrie, J. (2014). Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Willing is not enough; we must do.

International Journal of Epidemiology, 43(6), 1671-1677.

Foucault, M. (1980). Power/knowledge: Selected interviews and other writings, 1972-1977.

C. Gordon (Ed.). New York: Pantheon Books.

Giroux, H.A. (2014). Neoliberalism`s war on higher education. Toronto, Canada:

Between the Lines.

Mills, C. (1959). The sociological imagination. New York: Oxford University Press.

West, C. (1993). Prophetic thought in postmodern times. Monroe, ME: Common Courage Press.

West, C. (1999). The Cornel West reader (1st ed.). New York: Basic Civitas Books.